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Here, an electron affinity corresponds to a value obtained by subtracting an energy gap from a difference in energy between the vacuum level and the valence band maximum (the difference is also referred to as “ionization potential”). The energy gap can be measured using a spectroscopic ellipsometer (UT-300 manufactured by HORIBA Jobin Yvon SAS). The energy difference between the vacuum level and the valence band maximum can be measured using an ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) device (VersaProbe manufactured by ULVAC-PHI, Inc.)