One promising approach to an alternative to Li-ion batteries is a battery based on a multivalent ion electrolyte, such as magnesium (Mg) or calcium (Ca). Li-ion, with a charge of +1, can provide only a single electron for an electrical current, whereas multivalent ions (e.g., with a charge of +2 or +3) have the potential to provide two or more the electrical current of Li-ions (depending on the charge of the multivalent ion) if present with the same density. Calcium ion and magnesium ion provide relatively high potentials (Ca²⁺: ?2.87 relative to standard hydrogen electrode, SHE; Mg²⁺: ?2.37 vs. SHE) suitable for many secondary battery requirements. Mg batteries are one of the attractive technological alternatives due to low cost and high abundance of Mg, approximately 2 to 5-folds higher theoretical volumetric capacity of anodes (Mg: 3832 mAh/cm³ vs Li: 2061 mAh/cm³ vs graphite: 777 mAh/cm³) and higher safety associated with non-pyrophoric or dendrite-free Mg metal.