In one embodiment, the transition metal oxide is represented by MOx, where M is a transition metal, O is oxygen, and x is a number greater than 0 which represents the relative amount of oxygen in the material. In one embodiment, x may be an integer. In one embodiment, x is a non-integer. In one embodiment, the passivation layer comprises more than one transition metal oxide. In one embodiment, the passivation layer comprises a nonstoichiometric metal oxide. Exemplary transition metal oxide acceptors include, but are not limited to, molybdenum oxides (MoOx; 2≤x≤3), tungsten oxides (WOx), rhenium oxide (ReOx), ruthenium oxide (RuOx), manganese oxides (MnOx), or the like. In one embodiment, the transition metal in the transition metal dichalcogenide is the same transition metal as in the transition metal oxide. In one embodiment, the transition metal in the transition metal dichalcogenide differs from the transition metal in the transition metal oxide.
In one embodiment, the transition metal oxide is a semiconductor. In one embodiment, the transition metal oxide has a characteristic conduction band (CB) with a minimum energy corresponding to the material's lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). In one embodiment, the difference in energy between the HOMO of the donor material and the lowest energy limit of the conduction band of the transition metal oxide can be expressed as the energy offset, ΔECT.
In one embodiment, the thickness of the passivation layer is about 10 nm.